Kigu Essay Example for Free

Kigu Essay Using TPCASTT for Analysis T| Title| There is a field on the Canadian border that has a monument that is either forgotten, unimportant or both.| P| Paraphrase| On the Canadian border, there’s a beautiful field that isn’t famous, but it shouldn’t be known in order to preserve its beauty. | C| Connotation| What meaning does the poem/story have beyond the literal meaning? Fill in the chart below.| | | Form/GenreIt’s structured in the form of a free verse. The author chose to describe the beauty of nature, and says we should protect it.| DictionThe author uses â€Å"no†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and†did not†¦Ã¢â‚¬  because he is showing us that this field is important, even though nothing significant happened there.| ImageryI see a green, open, big field with birds silently flying overhead, with the wind blowing across the field.| | | Point of ViewThe author is the narrator. He is speaking in 1st person. He may have a lot of reliability. | DetailsThere is a naturally beautiful field that the author doesn’t want to be destroyed by any human or anything else.| AllusionsIt refers to the unknown soldiers that died. None of them died there, or were buried there.| | | SymbolismIt’s referring to purity. | Figurative LanguageThis is the field where grass joined handshallowed by neglect and an air so tame| Other Devicesâ€Å"People celebrate it by forgetting its name.†| A| Attitude| The speaker feels that the field is a beautiful place, and it should be protected.The author likes nature, and wants everyone else to try to protect it and to keep it as long as possible.| S| Shifts| There was no shift in this poem.| T| Title| The title means there is a beautiful piece of nature that it should be its own monument, even though nothing happened there.| T| Theme| Things in nature that are forgotten are the things that last.| In William Stafford’s poem, â€Å"At the Un-National Monument Along the Canadian Border,† I think the author is telling everyone that nature is precious. We should try to protect and keep it clean. Nature is a beautiful thing. You only have nature as long as you keep it pure. Another point is that monuments aren’t always going to be man-made structures. Sometimes, the most beautiful monuments are naturally made. The third idea is that the field is  like the opposite of a warzone. Instead of planes flying over, dropping bombs, birds are flying over. Instead of dead bodies on the ground, big, grassy plains are there. The last thing the author is telling us is that this field will last a long time because people are forgetting about it.

Event management

Event management Introduction to Event Management Event management is a continuous process that revolves around the utilization of project management practices, in the creation and programming of events such as conferences, seminars, festivals and business exhibitions (Polivka 1996). It involves the planning, monitoring and controlling of activities and resources that would be used, as an event evolves from a preliminary concept into an active and operational implementation. The process of event management involves studying the purpose of the event, identifying the prospective target audience, inventing a suitable event concept, planning and coordinating the logistics and finally executing the proposed event (Renton 1994; Passingham 1995). It is important to note that event management continues even after the execution of the actual event. Post-event analysis is necessary to gauge the ultimate success or failure of an event. Event Report HIV/AIDS Awareness Day Introduction Since the discovery of HIV/AIDS at the end of the 20th Century, cases of new infections have been on the rise in alarming rates, particularly in African and Asian countries (Petersen 2006; David 2009). This is in spite of educational and awareness campaigns, by both governmental and other non-governmental organizations (NGOS). The fact that more people have easy access to information regarding the pandemic has not changed HIV prevalence in most countries. It is becoming clearer that the spread of the HIV virus might be due to other reasons and not due to a lack of behavioral change or mere ignorance. HIV/AIDS awareness days have been used to try to educate the population and determining possible factors for the rising infection rates. It is fast becoming reality that most of the methods used to educate the population might be ineffective in the fight against HIV/AIDS. Many events are held every year trying to address this pandemic. According to Rockstroh et al. (2008), while some events might help in reducing infections, others end failing. This indicates that the organizational methodology plays a key role in determining their overall success of events. Main Purpose of Event The main purpose of this HIV/AIDS awareness day was to inform and educate the community on several topics related to HIV/AIDS. Despite the fact that most people know of HIV/AIDS, many myths and misconceptions about the virus persist. People still believe in these myths and uphold the misconceptions about the virus. The purpose of the event was to clarify and remove these myths and misconceptions, through the education of the target population on the facts about the disease. Scope of the Event: Target Audience According to Danta and Dusheiko (2008), in this era of HIV/AIDS, awareness and education about the virus deserves a national audience, if not an International one. However, the target audience in this event was the local community in Darling which is a rural town in South Africa. The age range was between the ages of 15 years to 35 years, as this age group is the worst affected by the pandemic. Nevertheless, older people were allowed to attend the event, as it was a public meeting of global importance. The main reason for having a small target audience was due to two factors. Firstly, it is easier to convey a message to a smaller group of people without distorting the information. Moreover, it is also easier to involve a small target audience in an events activities, as it is financially feasible (Cotterell 1994; Goroll et al. 2000). Figure (1) Venue The event takes place in a secondary school in Darling which is a small town in South Africa to delver a specific message to local and international youth. The school is not just a place to learn but it is also a place to educate. Time The end of the school year is a suitable time for this event in order to direct youth from different negative situations that they may experience at this period of time to productive experiences involving responsibilities and exciting social and educational event (Srevent, 2010). Figure (3) Theme The main theme of the event is the prevention and treatment of HIV/AIDS. The slogan is listen, you may get it! to educate youth that they may be infected by HIV/Aids if they do not follow the safe medical practice. Feasibility of the Event Since HIV/AIDS being a global pandemic, the event received financial support from the Government, (NGOS) international donors and local organizations. The physical resources required included tents, music sound equipment and a performance stage among many others. Most of the support personnel were volunteers and local youth. Due to massive support from organizations, the miscellaneous costs were easily achieved. Format of Event This HIV/AIDS awareness day took a paradigmatic shift from the norm, as it addressed the matters at hand using a very different style. Most events that address HIV/AIDS events are often education oriented, whereby attendees are literally taught in classes or discussion groups about HIV/AIDS. This event incorporated the appeal of sports, music and other fun activities to teach the audience and particularly youth on how to protect themselves from infection. Figure (5, 6, 7) How did Event Address the Theme The main theme of the event was the prevention and treatment of HIV/AIDS. The event started with a keynote speech from health experts and local officials. This was followed by some inspirational music from invited artists. In addition to entertaining the audience, the artists ensured that the songs they were performing were informative and relating to the theme of the event. Musical performances where interchanged with short dramas and skits about HIV/AIDS. The most interesting thing was that some of these musicals and skits were played out in the local dialect and thus grabbing the full attention of the audience. Not only were these plays informative, but also captivating and interesting. The performances were followed by mini-competitions including soccer contests, short races and fun games for the younger age groups. The teams participating were drawn from the local population. Each of the sports uniforms they wearing conveyed a different message about the dangers of HIV/AIDS. Just before the winning teams were feted, a soccer ball was inserted inside a condom, just to illustrate how elastic condoms can be, much to the amusement of the young audience. The speeches were deliberately short, to efficiently capture the attention of the audience. Appleby (2002) argues that, research shows that young people do not like long speeches and formalities. Therefore, the event organizers ensured that keynote speakers were short and precise while focusing on the main message. There was a question and answer session, whereby participants had the chance to ask their queries. All the questions were answered satisfactorily by the team of doctors who were invited to the event. The audience also got a chance to be tested for HIV, free of charge. The team of professional counselors ensured that participants underwent voluntary counseling sessions before and after testing. The fact that the tests were free got a huge response from the audience. The tests were confidential and those who tested positive probably received references on where they could start receiving treatment. The coordination of the event was superb. There were no conflicts in the delegation of duties. Every person had his or her role to play, as the event activities were being executed. In addition, there were no hitches or time delays; indicating the high level of planning and preparation. The event manager must have put in. Event Closure At the closure of the event, participants received freebies such as T-shirts, umbrellas, utensils and caps branded with anti-Aids messages. For those who did not understand the message through the speeches, they surely got it through the branded items. In addition to the free items, informational pamphlets were given out to the participants. This will certainly ensure that those who did not get the chance to attend the event can still learn about the virus through from the informational pamphlets. Conclusion The superb organization of this HIV/Aids Awareness day is a clear indication that creative thinking plays a key role in determining the ultimate success of an event. There are so many HIV/AIDS awareness events these days, but most of them employ existing concepts thus, leading to poor attendance. Creative thinking is the mental process that involves the discovery of new and brilliant ideas. It is the ability to invent new ideas by combining, changing or reapplying existing ideas. In event management, creative thinking assists event managers and organizers to identify ideas that could capture the attention of their target audience in a captivating way. In this case, the HIV/AIDS awareness event incorporated brilliant ideas such as sporting activities, music, skits, fun games and other competitions. Since it was a youth event, these ideas were irresistible to the target audience, and played a key role in the general success of the event. The participants were not only educated about HIV/AIDS, but also got a chance to enjoy and entertain themselves. The planning and preparation of the event was equally superb. An event coordinator was responsible for identifying event tasks and delegating duties to the team members. This ensured that the chances of responsibility conflicts arising were minimal. The estimations were also realistic, the time intervals between event activities were manageable enough to ensure that no activity was rushed or delayed. Event management goes beyond the execution of the actual event. An event is said to be successful, if it is executed and completed within the allocated time, the budgeted costs and the specified levels. Changes to the scope should be minimal and the event should meet the required qualities and standards. Technical hitches are sometimes allowed, as they are often unforeseen. In this HIV/AIDS awareness event, the manager surpassed the minimum event goals, by ensuring that the targeted audience who did not get a chance to attend the meeting still received information about HIV/AIDS, from the pamphlets. In addition, the event ran smoothly without any time delays, changes to the program or any other impediments. As a result, the event was considered a success.

Racism and Identity Hand in Hand Essay --

In society, there are many misconceptions in terms of racism. According to the merriam-webster dictionary, racism is define the belief that race accounts for differences in human character or ability and that a particular race is superior to others . Many people would agree with that definition. What is racism? The normal person if asked will simply reply, not liking someone for the color of their skin. Racism from my attitude which is substantiated by historical events is a system of power .Therefore is a system of power that is used to control the world and its people. Racism was employed by Europeans to subjugate and discriminate against other groups, in particular Africans/black people. It is also a power which ran through a systemic way to hinder and sabotage other groups. The system is so elaborate that it almost seems nonexistent on a systematic level. Hence, this is why many people do not think it exists anymore. Racism is pervasive in society and remains a silent code which has a profound effect society. Ralph Ellison author of the award-winning novel , Invisible Man deals with racism and how it effect an individual .I would analyze racism and display how it effect ones identity . Vocabulary, defines identity as an individual characteristic by which a thing or person is recognized or known. In other words it is how one views, look, sees and defines themselves. Many people identity are influenced by religion, environment, parents, culture, gender, teachers and textbooks. Media also can play a role in shaping one’s identity. This can include internet, news, movies, radio and etc. One’s identity can be shaped by many different things or experiences. The things that shaped my identity are family, race... ...e.. Fanon's work displays that double consciousness is also a condition of colonized people. ‘Black Skin, White Mask’’ documentary states the reaction of racism between black and white arise when the white become aware that one is attracted to black something. Something blacks meaning a black person. In conclusion racism appears in the field of vision. In summary, Racism influences ones (blacks) identity. This has a negative effect in the Black community .Often blacks looks thru the eyes of a white person to feel in power which lead to double conciseness. The Invisible Man story makes the reader, well at least in my case draw upon times in which I have indirectly experienced racism and lack of self-esteem. However, I know that by definition of racism I am affected by its global and local systematic approach to keep me and those who resemble me, subjugated.

The Information Environment During the Making of a Bob Dylan Album :: Media Recording Music

The Information Environment During the Making of a Bob Dylan Album In analyzing any of Bob Dylan's albums and lyrics, one might receive very powerful, timely, political and social messages from the artist. Perhaps it is the way in which he influences or responds to his fans which allows him to always seem a step ahead of the public. Take, for instance, his addition of electric instruments to his music in 1964 (Bob Dylan: Desire - Ink Blot Magazine). Dylan's use of these instruments, which are indicative of the growing information environment of the time, outraged folk fans. Nevertheless, "Dylan had merely created the most influential folk-rock ever recorded" (Bob Dylan: Desire). In essence, he moved forward from the mentality, in which a large part of the public during the 1960's still remained, in order to be better able to speak to his fans. He simply tried a new invention for the purpose of making his music sound better and holding on to his listeners. At the same time, though, when bands such as the Beatles had followed Bob's lead by creating bl ues and "psychadelic-influenced" music, Dylan retreated to his country forms (Bob Dylan: Desire). In other words, he spoke to the modern world, by progressing with the new, electric instruments, while still reaching his older, perhaps more traditional fans, with his alternated use of country forms. He composes music about betrayal, paranoia, fear and desire, and influentially ties in larger issues of the time, such as racial consciousness. Dylan's album entitled Desire is indicative of the artist's sense of and connection to the world around him. Perhaps the most influential song on the album, and indeed one of Bob's most politically and socially meaningful compositions, is "Hurricane." The interesting chain of events which lead to the making of this song indicate the information society of the time, as well as Dylan's contribution to his information culture and influence in the public. Rubin Carter, the former champion African-American boxer, would simply never have known to contact Dylan had he not first listened to his lyrics of oppression and class differences. Thus, Dylan's music is a powerful form of communication, a kind which would give a man such as Carter a glimpse of hope and justice. Without Carter's book, The Sixteenth Round (Social Conscience Rubin Hurricane Carter), the song would never have been made, and a greater public knowledge of the Ruben Carter case would never have been reached.

Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy Onassis Essay -- Biography First Lady Biogr

Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy Onassis Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, was the widow of John F. Kennedy the 35th President of the United States of America and of Aristotle S. Onassis, a Greek businessman. Jackie was constantly in the spotlight during her years as First Lady and afterward, we admired her self-possession over things, beauty, and grace. She was known to the public as â€Å"Jackie,† and in her later years as â€Å"Jackie O† after she remarried Mr. Onassis. Jacqueline Lee Bouvier was born in Southampton, N.Y., on July 28, 1929. Her father John Vernou Bouvier III was a successful Wall Street Broker and her Mother Janet Lee Bouvier was a well accomplished Equestrian. Her mother later divorced and re-married in 1940 to Hugh D. Auchincloss. She was brought up in wealthy and well-cultured surroundings, mainly in New York, Rhode Island, and Virginia. Jackie attended Miss Porter's School for Girls in Connecticut and Vassar College, where she excelled in history, literature, art and French and later graduated from George Washington University in 1951. In 1952, while working on her first job as an inquiring photographer for the Washington Times-Herald, she interviewed Senator John F. Kennedy of Massachusetts. On September 12, 1953, she and Kennedy got married at St. Mary’ Church in Newport. In time they had three children Caroline, John, and Patrick, who was born pre-mature and died two days after his birth in 1963. At the age of 31 Ja...

Genre Defense of Shakespeare’s ”As You Like It” Essay

â€Å"As You Like It represents, together with Much Ado About Nothing and Twelfth Night, the summation of Shakespeare’s achievement in festive, happy comedy during the years 1598-1601,† proclaims David Bevington his The Complete Works of Shakespeare (288). Bevington is obviously not the first editor to have categorized Shakespeare’s plays. In fact, part of the plays’ popularity might be based upon the fact that audiences know what to expect when they begin viewing the productions. For example, As You Like It’s title hints that audiences should expect the play to end happily. This play’s name is not, however, all that helps classify it as a comedy. Every element of the play drips with comedic elements, as Shakespeare characteristically critiques love, while highlighting the pastoral motif. The theme of the play is an obvious remark on its classification. Shakespeare exploits literary convention by mocking the foolishness love generates in us all. Kenneth Muir, in Shakespeare’s Comic Sequence, declares, â€Å"His [Shakespeare’s] lovers-Rosalind, Orlando, Celia, Oliver and Phoebe-would all make answer to Marlowe’s question ‘Who ever loved that loved not at first sight?’ with a chorus of ‘No one.'(88)† Each of the characters do and say impulsive things based solely on emotion. The Forest of Arden gives the characters freedom to act in such silly manners. Once their love relationships have been realized in marriage, the couples can prepare to return to the order, and presumably reason, of the court. The plot of As You Like It centers on the love relationships of four couples. Made up of the lovers’ stories and the story of the overthrown Duke Senior, who has fled into the Forest of Arden, the plot is quite complex. It centers on the movement of the characters from the court to the forest and then readying themselves to return to court. The play begins with the instantaneous falling in love of Rosalind and Orlando at court and the nearly simultaneous retreat of each into the Forest of Arden, due to Duke Frederick’s sudden disdain for Rosalind and Oliver’s intention to kill Orlando. The plotline continues with Rosalind disguised as Ganymede, a boy, blocking Rosalind and Orlando’s love. The plot moves from disorder to order, though, and the play concludes with a typical comic ending: a marriage ceremony. The marriage masque further solidifies the play’s comedic classification. Helen Gardner notes in her article that the masque of Hymen returns order as it is able â€Å"to end the whole with courtly grace and dignity. This is an image of civility and true society, for Hymen is a god of cities† (59). A song sung at the wedding feast declares Hymen’s dominion over towns: â€Å"Tis Hymen peoples every town / High wedlock then be honored. / Honor, high honor and renown / To Hymen, god of every town!† (Shakespeare, V. iv. 142-145). Furthermore, the scene accounts for all of the characters happy state: Rosalind and Orlando have finally overcome all obstacles to be united; Oliver and Celia are able to immediately marry and Oliver has changed his ways; Silvius finally obtains Phoebe’s love; Touchstone and Audrey are married; and Duke Frederick has repented and joined a monastery, leaving Duke Senior to assume his rightful throne. All problems have been resolved, which leaves no room for arguing that the play is a comedy. The characters also prove that the play has been appropriately classified. The different lovers demonstrate stereotypical kinds of love. Commentator Kenneth Muir remarks, â€Å"In As You Like It different kinds of love are examined-the lust of Touchstone, the self-love of Jacques, the pride and vanity of Phoebe, and the sentimental idealism of Orlando-and all are found wanting† (91). The central relationship is between Rosalind and Orlando, whom Bertrand Evans describes as â€Å"the brightest of Shakespeare’s bright heroines† and â€Å"the least conscious of his unconscious heroes† (92). Orlando seems a typical jock. He wrestles Charles in the court and then falls hopelessly in love with Rosalind-so hopelessly in love that he, despite being a poor poet, carves Rosalind’s name and poems about her into tree trunks. Although Oliver has denied him a gentleman’s education, he is a noble character, who is loyal to his servant Adam, brave enough to fight Charles, and loving when speaking about his beloved Rosalind. Nonetheless, Orlando must have some naivetà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ in order for Rosalind to continue fooling him. Evans expounds, â€Å"Despite the deserved praise which Oliver heaps upon Orlando [†¦,] Orlando is exposed repeatedly in situations of which the truth eludes him. [†¦] His abrupt disposal of Charles the wrestler; his first tongue-tied meeting with Rosalind; his sword-brandishing, valiant, but frightfully unaware entrance to demand food of Duke Senior-all these are parts of the preparation.† (92-3) Orlando’s good intentions are mocked somewhat by his actions. Rosalind is also a good person, as is evident in her devotion to Celia, her father, and Orlando. However, Rosalind’s disguise leads to some humorous scenes as the (at least, original) audience is aware of the fact that, as Muir describes, when Ganymede is helping Orlando, â€Å"We have a boy pretending to be a woman, pretending to be a boy, pretending to be a boy, pretending to be a woman, satirising feminine behaviour† (90). Her disguise provides numerous incongruities as the audience continues to see the male Ganymede in opposition to Rosalind. Taking on a masculine role helps Rosalind to develop inner strength. In fact, Diane Dreher explains in her analysis of androgynous Shakespearean characters that â€Å"Rosalind’s disguise enables her to examine Orlando’s motives, allowing her to say and do things that traditional feminine modestly would not permit† (121). Despite her depth of character, the audience is constantly aware of her super objective : to marry Orlando. This goal in and of itself is a romantic convention that cannot be ignored. While Oliver and Duke Frederick appear as antagonistic characters in the beginning scenes when they are at court, both make a turn around after entering the forest. Shakespeare utilizes a romantic convention, the sudden conversion of a villain, to further illuminate the plays comedic nature. When Orlando rescues Oliver from a lioness, Oliver finds favor in his younger brother, and the two are reunited. Oliver and Orlando’s brother Jacques explains that Duke Frederick has changed: â€Å"And to the skirts of this wild wood [Duke Frederick] came, / Where, meeting with an old religious man, / After some question with him, was converted / Both from his enterprise and from the world, / His crown bequeathing to his banished brother, / And all their lands restored to them again / That were with him exiled.† (Shakespeare, V. iv. 158-164). Entering the woods leads the characters to become better people. The characters language, although sometimes a bit poetic, is rather common. The play’s pastoral elements make prose a more likely language choice. In fact, Dr. Sharron Cassavant, professor of English at Northeastern University has calculated that 54.5 percent of the plays 2, 636 lines are written in prose. The opening scene, exposition in conversation between Orlando and Adam, is entirely prose. Rosalind and Celia also interchange in prose. Prose dominates the dialogue between the lovers. Rhymed verse is generally used when Orlando attempts to write poems about his beloved Rosalind. Blank verse, a higher form, is used most often by Jacques, but Duke Senior also utilizes to proclaim the good that nature has offered him. In this critique of love, blank verse is reserved most often for use by those characters unaffected by love. The language lends itself to the play’s love-at-first-sight theme in that the lovers do not have time to organize their thoughts in a collected wa y, but rather speak whatever first enters their mind. The play appeals to the comedic audience visually and aurally as well. Most notably, Rosalind’s disguise allows the audience, aware of the fact that the boy they see pretending to be a woman is actually the woman he is pretending to be, to laugh at the incongruities of Orlando’s pretend love for and Phoebe’s real love for Ganymede. The disguise also presents funny sounds as Rosalind’s voice must change depending on the character she is playing. The other pastoral characters also lend country-bumpkin accents to the plays aural elements, as they are less sophisticated than the courtly characters. As You Like It could not be more comedic. Each of the plays elements presents stereotypical characteristics of comedy. Shakespeare obviously knew the requirements of each genre and managed to control those requirements while never ceasing to dazzle his audience. His works were all as we like them. Works Cited Bevington, David. Introduction to As You Like It. The Complete Works of Shakespeare. By Bevington. NY: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc., 1997. 288-91. Cassavant, Sharron. As You Like It Main page. Introduction to Shakespeare. Course Website. Dept. of English, Northeastern University. 11 December 2004 . Dreher, Diane Elizabeth. Domination and Defiance: Fathers and Daughters in Shakespeare. Lexington, KY: The University Press of Kentucky, 1986. [OBU] Evans, Bertrand. Shakespeare’s Comedies. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1960. [OBU] Gardner, Helen. â€Å"As You Like It.† Shakespeare the Comedies: A Collection of Critical Essays, Ed. Kenneth Muir. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,1965.

BTEC National 90 Credits/ Diploma in Health and Social Care Essay

Overview of the unit This unit highlights the different psychological perspectives and encourages learners to apply these approaches to the study of health and social care. The value of psychological studies to the understanding of health and social care will also be examined. Learners will initially consider the meaning of the term ‘theories’ in the context of psychology, and will begin to appreciate the diversity of psychological theories as they progress through the unit. Learners will examine the principal psychological perspectives and then apply them to the health and social care sectors to gain understanding of the potential value of psychology in these sectors. On completion of this unit learners will have considered the psychological approach to studying health and social care. The unit encourages reflection, and will be valuable to those learners intending to work with people in a caring capacity. Look more:  sleep deprivation solution essay Learning outcomes On completion of this unit a learner should: 1 Understand psychological perspectives 2 Understand psychological approaches to health and social care. Grading criteria for the unit: To achieve a pass grade the evidence must show that the learner is able to: P1 explain the principal psychological perspectives P2 explain different psychological approaches to health practice P3 explain different psychological approaches to social care practice. M1 assess different psychological approaches to study M2 compare two psychological approaches to health and social care service provision D1 evaluate two psychological approaches to health and social care service provision. P1: Explain key points of the following principal psychological perspectives In this assignment there will be an explanation on the key pinots of the following principal psychological perspectives. Behaviourist perspective: Behaviorist psychologists explain all human behavior as resulting from experience. Two key thinkers associated with this perspective are Pavlov (classical conditioning) and skinner (operant conditioning). Although these two theories believed that different processes were involved, they both explained all types of behavior as being the result of learning-everything from shyness to aggression, from happiness to depression. This is quite different from, say the psychodynamic or biological approaches. The first theory of learning is called classical conditioning. This theory was developed by a Russian physiologist called Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936). He was working with dogs to investigate their digestive system. The dogs were attached to a harness, as shown opposite, and Pavlov attached monitors to their stomach and mouths so he could measure the rate of salivation  (production of saliva). One day he noticed that a dog began to salivate when the laboratory assistant entered the room with a bowl of food, but before it had actually tasted the food. Since salivation is a reflex response (which until then was thought to be produced only as a result of food touching the tongue), this seemed unusual. Pavlov speculated that the dog was salivating because it had learned to associate the laboratory assistant with food. He then developed his theory in the following way. This type of learning is associated with the theories of Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1904-1990). Skinner was an American psychologist who worked mostly with rats and pigeons, to discover some of the key principles of learning new behaviors. He used a very famous device, called a Skinner box, illustrated below. The box contains a level which, when pressed, releases a food pellet into the box, thus reinforcing lever-pressing behavior. When the rat is first placed the box it will run around, sniff the various items and at some point it will press the lever, releasing a food pellet. After a while, when the rat has repeatedly performed this action, it will learn that this behavior (pressing the lever) is automatically followed by the release of a food pellet (the consequences). Because the pellet is experienced as reinforcing (something the rat would like to have more of), this consequence increases the probability of the behavior being repeated. There are two types of reinforcing: positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. Skinner investigated negative reinforcement by running a very low electrical current on the floor of the Skinner box. Psychodynamic Perspective: This approach is associated with the Austrian psychologists Sigmund Frued (1856-1939), who developed the theory of psychoanalysis. A key follower of Freud was Erik Erikson (1902-1994), who adapted aspects of Freud’s approach. Freud described the occasion when a Member of Parliament was referring to the MP for Hull, with whom he disagreed about some policy. Instead of saying  Ã¢â‚¬Ëœthe honourable member from Hull’ he stated to say, ‘the honourable member from Hell’. Freud was one of the earliest thinkers to bring to public attention the idea that we are not always aware of all aspects of ourselves. He suggested that what we are aware of is represented in our conscious mind but that many of our memories, feelings and past experiences are locked up in part of our mind he called the ‘unconscious’. We cannot access the content of our conscious, but they often ‘leak out’ in dreams and slips of the tongue. Freud believed that the conscious mind was like the tip of an iceberg- only a small part being available to awareness. Part of the unconscious that we can easily access he called the pre-conscious. This contains information not yet in consciousness but that can easily be retrieved (e.g. the name of Aunt Edie’s cat). The rest, well under the surface consisted of the unconscious. The importance of early experience in determining later behaviours is clearly illustrated by Freud’s development theory of psychosexual stages. He believed that we all go through several stages of psychosexual development. At each stage, the individual’s libido (energy) is focused on a part of the body that is particularly relevant at that stage. If the needs of the developing child are met at each stage, it moves on to the next development stage. If, however, there is struggle or conflict or some unsatisfactory experience, the individuals becomes ‘fixated’ (stuck) at this stage. This result in certain ways of being, or personality traits, which are carried through into adulthood and which can explain behaviour later in life. The earliest stage is the ‘oral stage’. This focus here is on the mouth and activities such as sucking, biting and licking. Freud believes that there could be two reasons for fixation. If the infant was weaned too early, it would feel forever under-gratified and unsatisfied and would develop into a pessimistic, sarcastic person. If, on the other hand, it was over-gratified (weaned too late) the individual would develop a gullible personality, naively trusting in others and with a tendency to ‘swallow anything’. This stage lasts from birth to approximately 18 months. If the infant successful passes through the oral stage without becoming  fixated, the next stage is the ‘anal stage’, which last fro, approximately one to three years. Here there libido is focussed on aspects to do with potty training, with child feeling forced to use the potty before they are ready, or feeling over-controlled in various area, they may rebel; by retaining their faces: the child refuses to ‘go’, thus holding on to control and withholding satisfaction from the parent. During the stage of four to five the child passes through the ‘phallic stage’. Fixation at this stage is associated with anxiety and guilty feeling about sex and fear of castration for males. If this stage is not resolved, the theory suggests that a boy may become homosexual and a girl may become lesbian. Freud thought these were abnormal fixation: however most people today would not view them this way. Between that age of five to seven and the onset of puberty, the child enters the ‘latency stage’, which is not strictly speaking a developmental phase but a time when the focus is on social pursuit such as sport, academic excellence and the development of friendships. The final psychosexual stage is the ‘genital stage’, which begins at puberty. Freud believed that the less fixated the individual has become during earlier stages, the more easily this stage will be negotiated, resulting in the ability to form strong heterosexual relationship with an ability to be warm and loving as well as to receive love in a new, mature fashion. A second important feature early experience is the development of ego defence mechanisms. The use of a defence mechanism allows us to block out events that threaten to overwhelm us. A final influence is that of the mind. Freud suggested that the in which he called the psych is divided into three dynamic parts. The lid is a part of the much which totally unconscious and which exist at birth. The superego is a formed as a result of socialisation and consists of all instructions, morals and values that are repeatedly enforced as we are growing up. The main role of superego is to try to subdue the activity of the lid. The ego tries to balance the demands of the lid and the superego This table will suggest examples: Name of defence mechanise Explanation Example Repression The person forgets the event Forgetting a traumatic event in childhood (e.g. a car crash) Regression Reverting to an earlier stage of development Wetting the bed when a sibling us born, having been dry before Denial Pushing an event or emotion out of consciousness Denying that a loved one has died Displacement Redirecting desires onto a safe object Kicking the cat at home because your boss gave you hard time at work Erik Erikson was psychologist who agrees with much of Freud’s theory in so far as he thought that we developed through a series of stages. However, the thought that these continued throughout our lifetime and were essentially social nature. He also believed that Freud put too much emphasis on our desire for individual’s gratification and not enough on our needs to be accepted by society and lead a meaningful life. Erikson suggested that we move through a series of psychosocial cries with different social factors at each stage. For example between birth and the age of one, the life crisis concern developing trust or mistrust in self and other. The social focus this stage is the mother. Psychosocial stages Stage Key focus of stage Positive outcome Negative outcome Stage one (0-1years) How the infant is parented Dependable, responsive caring parenting lead to a sense of trust Parenting that lacks warmth and affection or is inconsistent leads to mistrust Stage 2 (1-3years) Being enabled to do things by yourself Being supported in growing independent lead to a sense of autonomy Being criticised and over-controlled lead to a felling of doubt about your own competence Stage 3 (3-6 years) Interaction with the world Being encouraged to try out new skills and explore the world lead to sense of imitative Being hampered in the desire to find things out (e.g. criticised, told not to be silly) lead tp a sense of guilt and a lack of confidence Stage 4 (6-12 years) Understanding how things are made and how they work The ability to succeed at realistic tasks lead to a sense of industry Being pushed to take on tasks they are not ready for leads to a sense of inferiority Stage 5 12-18 years) Developing a consistent sense of identifying by experimentation Experimentation leads to a secure sense of identity The inability to experiment and develop a sense of indentify leads to role confusion and negative identity Social learning: Culture refers to the shared values, norms and language, customer and practise of a group. Although we tend to think of culture as being specific to different countries, it also refers to different sub-groups within society. For example, people from different socioeconomic groups within the UK will share different aspects of culture, such as the value placed on eating at a table rather than on your lap in front of the television: the way in which money is spent and how to talk to your elders. It is important to understand how culture affects our behaviour in order to gain full understanding of the people we encounter and those we work with. There are many influences in our behaviour- from peers, siblings, parents, television, sports personalities and other celebrities. According to the  social learning theory, role models are very important. While we may learn new behaviours fro, anyone the likelihood of imitating such behaviours is strongly influenced by the way we perceive the person performing the behaviour (the model). If we observe someone we admire behaving in particular way, we are more likely you imitate such behaviour. This diagram below illustrates factors associate with a model that influences whatever we will imitate him or her. Our behaviour is dramatically influenced by the presence of other, however much we may believe ourselves to be truly individual in out beliefs and behaviour. Nowhere is this more clearly demonstrated than in the experiments conducted in the 1950s by social psychologist Solomon Asch. He was interested in a concept called major influence. This is when the presence of other people causes us to change our public behaviour or opinions because we do not want to stand out from the crowd. This is an important concept in psychology that has a big impact in the way we behave toward others and expect them to behave toward us. If we believe ourselves to be worthwhile, pleasant, and likeable them we will almost certainly be polite and cheerful toward those we meet, thus creating a favourable impression. In response, those who come into contract with us perceive us favourable and behave in an s positive way towards us, with the result that out positive self-belief are confirmed. If on the other hand, we are angry full of resentment, believe the world is against us and so on, then we are likely to behave in s more aggressive, confrontational or argumentative way, in which will confirm our views of ourselves and the worlds. There is a similarity between role theory and the self-fulfilling prophecy, in that role theory suggests that because we live within particular culture, society and social group we are influenced by other people. This influence helps lead us to adopt certain roles and tries to live up to the expectations that go with this role. Social learning theory explains behaviour as the result of learning form  people we are exposed to in our environment. We can also learn new behaviours from people we observe, either in real life or in the media. This is knows as observational learning and this theory was developed by the American psychologist Albert Bandura. The person we learn from is known as the role model and the process of imitating is called modelling. However we do not imitate all behaviour we observe and remember. Whether or not it is our interest to imitate particular behaviour is influenced by characteristics of the model. If we see a model being punished for a certain behaviour we are likely you imitate it than if we see him or he being positively reinforced. Humanistic Humanistic psychology looks at human experience from the viewpoint of the individual. It focuses on the idea of free will and the belief that we are all capable of making choices. Two psychologist associated with this approach are Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers. Mallow (1903-1970) was an American psychologist who believed that we are all seeking becomes the best that we can possibly be-spirally, physically, emotionally and intellectually. He called this self- actualisation. He constructed a theory known as the hierarchy of needs, in which he explained that every human being requires certain basic needs to be met before they can approach the next level. As the diagram shown, Maslow believed they until our basic physiological needs ate meet we will focus all our energies on getting them met and not begin or progress further. When we are well-housed well-fed and comfortable physically, we begin to focus on our emotional needs, such as the need to belong and be loved and to feel self-esteem. When our lived are such that these needs are also met, we strive to self-actualise. Rogers (1902-1987) was partially interested in the concept of sel. There are many aspects of the self but two are especially important here. Self-concept refers to the way we view ourselves. This includes physical and biological  attributes such as male or female, blond or brunette, tall or short, as well as personality traits such as being kind, humble, assertive, and hard-working. The self-concept is formed from nearly age and young children internalise other people’s judgments of them, which them become part of their self-concept. Roger believed that we also hold a concept of self called the idea self. This represents a view of us as we felt we should be and as we would like to be. Self-esteem: how valuable we fell, literally the amount of esteem we give to ourselves. Someone with high self-esteem will believe they are loved and lovable and that they are important and valued. An individual with low self-esteem, may feel unwanted and worthless, or no value to anyone else, unloved and unlovable. Self-concept: the way we see ourselves. In early life this comes from what we are told about ourselves. Cognitive/information processing This psychological perspective has gained enormous ground since the 2960s, when the influence of behaviourism began to wane. With the development of computer came the idea that brain activity was like the operation of a computer. A great deal of research has been devoted to understanding cognitive processes such as attention, memory, perception information processing, problem solving, through, language and other aspect of cognition. Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was a Swiss psychologist who initially worked on measuring intelligence. During his research he noticed that children of the same age made the same mistake in logic, however bright they were. He came to the conclusion that cognition develops through a series of stages, each new stage building on the previous one. Stage Age Key features Stage 1: sensori-motor 0-2 years The world is experienced through motor activity and the senses Stage 2: pre-operational 2-7 years Language develops along with memory. The child is egocentric and unable to conserve Stage 3: concrete operational 7-11 years The child can now understand conservation but cannot yet solve problems mentally Stage 4:formal operational 11+ The child cannot use abstract thoughts and represent problems mentally George Kelly (1905-1966) developed a unique psychological theory known as the psychology of personal constructs. He saw the individual as a scientist, making predictions about the future, testing them and, if necessary, revising them according to new evidence. A construct is a way of constructing (interpreting and making sense of) reality and the environment. Kelly believed that we do not have to be constrained by our past history but can seek out new, alternative, more positive meanings. Biological perspective The theory of maturation holds that the effects of the environment are minimal. The child is born with a self of genetic instructions passed down from its parents, and it’s cognitive, physical and other developmental processes merely unfold over time, rather than being depended upon the environment to mature. It is in effect a theory which stated that development is due to nature not nurture. This is quite a contact to learning theory or humanistic theory, where the effects of nurture are paramount. Arnold Gesell (1880-1961) believed that development occurred according to a sequence of maturational processes. For example, development in the womb follows a fixed set of stages: the heart begins to form first, along with a rudimentary nervous system. Bones and muscles develop next and over time the organism develops into a fully functioning human being, ready  to be born. As the child develops from birth onwards, its genes allow it to flower gradually into the person he or she is meant to be. The environment should provide support for this unfolding of talents, skills personality and interests but the main thing driving this development is the maturational process. The autonomic nervous system produces its effects through activation of nerve fibre throughout the nervous system, brain and body or by stimulating the release of hormones from endocrine glands (such as the adrenal and pineal glands). Hormones are biochemical substances that are released into the bloodstream and have a profound effect on target organs and on behaviour. They are present in very small quantities and individual molecules have a very short life, so their effects quickly disappear if they are not secreted continuously. There are a large number of hormones including: Melatonin, which is released by the pineal gland and acts on the brainstem sleep mechanism to help synchronise the phases of sleep and activity Testosterone, which is released in the testicle and may influence aggressiveness Oxytocin, which is released by the pituitary gland and stimulates milk production and females orgasms Some hormones are released as response to external stimuli. Central nervous system Autonomic nervous system Consists of the brain and spinal cord Regulates organs of the body and processes such as heart rate and blood pressure: only one branch is activated at any time Sympathetic branch Parasympathetic branch Associated with arousal and the fight or flight response Associated with rest and relaxation Genes affect behaviour in many ways. Some discords, such as Huntington’s disease, are caused by a single dominate gene, which either parent can pass on to their children. Other, such as caustic fibrosis and sickle cell anaemia, are caused when both parents pass on the gene for the disorder. Some of the changes in behaviour are listed below, through this list is not comprehensive: Hallucinations and delusions Severe confusion Progressive memory loss Inappropriate speech: use of jargon or wrongs words Personality changes including anxiety and depression, withdrawal from social interaction. Decreased ability to care for oneself and inability to maintain employment. P2: Explain different psychological approaches to health practice. In this task there will be an explanation on the different psychological approaches to health practice. Psychodynamic perspective: Understanding challenging behaviour The basic tenet of this perspective I that much of our behaviour is driven by unconscious forces. It is therefore important to recognise that we may not be able to understand behaviours using question and answer techniques, as the individual may not be aware of what is troubling them. It is necessary to delve a little deeper and try to interpret behaviour, on the assumption that the behaviour is in some way a symptom of what is going on in the unconscious. Understanding and managing anxiety When we are anxious we often have fears about even that have happened or might happen, about things we have done or might do, and about whether the world is safe or unsafe place. We often try to control anxiety using a variety of strategies. Sometime we use denial- the ostrich approach where we bury our heads in the sand and pretend the object of our anxiety doesn’t  exist. Sadly, for mot of us, the anxiety still seeps through, and may present itself in the form of physical symptom. Cognitive perspective: Supporting individuals with learning difficulties Individuals with earning difficulties can experience enormous frustration in their daily live as they seek to make sense of what can be bewildering experiences. The cognitive approach can be used to help people who misread situation. By identifying irrational thoughts, an individual can be guided to change them, with consequent benefits for their emotional and behaviour. Cognitive work of this type can improve self-esteem and reduce outburst, which may be triggered by lack of understanding of the requirements of a given situation (for example, having to wait in turn for a meal.) Supporting individuals with emotional problems: The cognitive perspective is widely used with individuals with a wide variety of emotional problems. This perspective begins by examining how distorted and irrational negative thoughts influence feelings, which hen lead to change in behaviour. Support individuals with depression: The psychologist Aaron Beck has formed a helpful approach to understanding depression, known as cognitive behaviour therapy. The pattern of behaviour common to these suffering from depression is described by Beck as a cognitive triad. To begin with, the individual thinks he is worthless and inadequate. This self-appraisal then lead to the beliefs that this lack of worth means that the future will be just as bad as the present. This then generalises to a conviction that the world contains problems and difficulties that he individual us powerless to overcome. The goal of cognitive therapy is to challenge these negative thoughts and to encourage the patient to develop alternative, more positive, ways of seeing the world. Identifying negative-irrational/distorted thinking This can be done by keeping a diary and recording every instance of negative thinking and the feelings that follow. Initially this can be difficult, as  these patterns are so automatic it can be difficult to notice them. However it will get easier over time. For example: asking yourself: What is the evidence for such negative thinking? Are there alternative explanations? It can be helpful to think how others would response or ask them How does it affect me to think so negatively What type if thinking errors am I making (for example, magnifying or catastrophizing) Supporting individuals with post-traumatic stress disorder This disorder consists of a set of symptoms as outlined below: Re-experiencing the traumatic event (intrusion) Nightmares Flashbacks Frequent recall of the event Intense emotional upset produced by stimuli that symbolise the event (e.g. fireworks may symbolise a battlefields) Avoiding of stimuli associated with the event (or numbering of responsiveness) The person tries to avoid thinking about the trauma or encountering stimuli that will bring it to mind The person may be unable to remember the event Decreased interest in other A sense of estrangement An inability to feel positive emotions Increased arousal Difficulties falling or staying asleep Difficulties contracting Hyper- Vigilance An exaggerate startle response The above are some, or all of the symptoms experienced by individuals with a diagnosis of pat-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Biological perspective: Arnold Gesell developed an assessment scale to enable judgement to be, made about whether a child’s behaviour and understanding matches that their chronological age (how old the child is). This scale enables the child’s scores to be compared against their scores at an earliest age to determine whether development is proceeding satisfactorily. It also enables a skilled and trained assessor to indentify developmental problems that may emerge for an individual, thus allowing for early and appropriate intervention. There are three overlapping stages at which development can be measured: Between two and a half years to age six Between four and six years old Between six and nine years old At each age there are various tests to assess different aspects of development. One test administered at around the age of four consists of comprehension questions. It measures the child’s ability to use perceptual; accuracy and skills involved in regulating its own behaviour and emotions by asking him to plan solutions to hypothetical social situations. This allows for a judgment to be made on the child’s ability to deal with actual social situations as it reaches the age of about five years old. The cubes test, which is used primarily with children aged two to six, assess the ability to follow directions and perform a structured task. Visual perception and fine motor co-ordination skills involves in colouring, cutting and handwriting are assed against developmental norms. The child’s attention span, together with the ability to perceive different shapes accurately, is also measured and together these give information about reading comprehension, spelling and mathematical skills. M1: Asses different psychological approached to study In this assignment their will be an assessment of different psychological approaches to study.